Key challenges in advancing research on depression phenotyping – Nature Mental Health

key-challenges-in-advancing-research-on-depression-phenotyping-–-nature-mental-health
  • Friedrich, M. J. Depression is the leading cause of disability around the world. JAMA 317, 1517 (2017).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veal, C. et al. Heterogeneity of outcome measures in depression trials and the relevance of the content of outcome measures to patients: a systematic review. Lancet Psychiatry 11, 285–294 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stein, D. J. et al. Psychiatric diagnosis and treatment in the 21st century: paradigm shifts versus incremental integration. World Psychiatry 21, 393–414 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, N. R. et al. A systematic evaluation of machine learning-based biomarkers for major depressive disorder. JAMA Psychiatry 81, 386–395 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moriarty, A. S. et al. Predicting relapse or recurrence of depression: systematic review of prognostic models. Br J Psychiatry 221, 448–458 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kennis, M. et al. Prospective biomarkers of major depressive disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Mol. Psychiatry 25, 321–338 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leichsenring, F., Steinert, C., Rabung, S. & Ioannidis, J. P. A. The efficacy of psychotherapies and pharmacotherapies for mental disorders in adults: an umbrella review and meta-analytic evaluation of recent meta-analyses. World Psychiatry 21, 133–145 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Paul, S. M. & Potter, W. Z. Finding new and better treatments for psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology 49, 3–9 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maj, M. et al. The clinical characterization of the adult patient with depression aimed at personalization of management. World Psychiatry 19, 269–293 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Marx, W. et al. Major depressive disorder. Nat. Rev. Dis. Primer 9, 44 (2023).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M., Ellison, W., Young, D., Chelminski, I. & Dalrymple, K. How many different ways do patients meet the diagnostic criteria for major depressive disorder?. Compr. Psychiatry 56, 29–34 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I., Coomans, F. & Lorenzo-Luaces, L. The 341 737 ways of qualifying for the melancholic specifier. Lancet Psychiatry 7, 479–480 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olbert, C. M., Gala, G. J. & Tupler, L. A. Quantifying heterogeneity attributable to polythetic diagnostic criteria: theoretical framework and empirical application. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 123, 452–462 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • International Advisory Group for the Revision of ICD-10 Mental and Behavioural Disorders A conceptual framework for the revision of the ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioural disorders. World Psychiatry 10, 86–92 (2011).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uher, R., Payne, J. L., Pavlova, B. & Perlis, R. H. Major depressive disorder in DSM-5: implications for clinical practice and research of changes from DSM-IV. Depress. Anxiety 31, 459–471 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Herrman, H. et al. Time for united action on depression: a Lancet–World Psychiatric Association Commission. Lancet Lond. Engl. 399, 957–1022 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S. The phenomenology of major depression and the representativeness and nature of DSM criteria. Am. J. Psychiatry 173, 771–780 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chevance, A. et al. Identifying outcomes for depression that matter to patients, informal caregivers, and health-care professionals: qualitative content analysis of a large international online survey. Lancet Psychiatry 7, 692–702 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Regier, D. A. et al. DSM-5 field trials in the United States and Canada, Part II: test–retest reliability of selected categorical diagnoses. Am. J. Psychiatry 170, 59–70 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I., Flake, J. K. & Robinaugh, D. J. Revisiting the theoretical and methodological foundations of depression measurement. Nat. Rev. Psychol. 1, 358–368 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I. The 52 symptoms of major depression: lack of content overlap among seven common depression scales. J. Affect. Disord. 208, 191–197 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A. & Brown, G. K. Beck Depression Inventory Manual (The Psychological Corporation, 1987).

  • Patalay, P. & Fried, E. I. Editorial perspective: Prescribing measures: unintended negative consequences of mandating standardized mental health measurement. J. Child Psychol. Psychiatry 62, 1032–1036 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cronbach, L. J. & Meehl, P. E. Construct validity in psychological tests. Psychol. Bull. 52, 281–302 (1955).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, M. in Assessment of Depression (eds Sartorius, N. & Ban, T. A.) 143–152 (Springer, 1986).

  • Montgomery, S. A. & Asberg, M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br. J. Psychiatry 134, 382–389 (1979).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martino, D. J., Szmulewicz, A. G., Valerio, M. P. & Parker, G. Melancholia: an attempt at definition based on a review of empirical data. J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 207, 792–798 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Arnow, B. A. et al. Depression subtypes in predicting antidepressant response: a report from the iSPOT-D trial. Am. J. Psychiatry 172, 743–750 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uher, R. et al. Melancholic, atypical and anxious depression subtypes and outcome of treatment with escitalopram and nortriptyline. J. Affect. Disord. 132, 112–120 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oquendo, M. A. et al. Instability of symptoms in recurrent major depression: a prospective study. Am. J. Psychiatry 161, 255–261 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veltman, E. M. et al. Melancholia as predictor of electroconvulsive therapy outcome in later life. J. ECT 35, 231–237 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Milaneschi, Y., Lamers, F., Berk, M. & Penninx, B. W. J. H. Depression heterogeneity and its biological underpinnings: toward immunometabolic depression. Biol. Psychiatry 88, 369–380 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penninx, B. W. J. H. et al. Immuno-metabolic depression: from concept to implementation. Lancet Reg. Health Eur. 48, 101166 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • de Kluiver, H. et al. Metabolomics signatures of depression: the role of symptom profiles. Transl. Psychiatry 13, 198 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lamers, F. et al. Depression profilers and immuno-metabolic dysregulation: longitudinal results from the NESDA study. Brain Behav. Immun. 88, 174–183 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vreijling, S. R. et al. Features of immunometabolic depression as predictors of antidepressant treatment outcomes: pooled analysis of four clinical trials. Br. J. Psychiatry 224, 89–97 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shafer, A. B. Meta-analysis of the factor structures of four depression questionnaires: Beck, CES-D, Hamilton, and Zung. J. Clin. Psychol. 62, 123–146 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I. et al. Measuring depression over time… Or not? Lack of unidimensionality and longitudinal measurement invariance in four common rating scales of depression. Psychol. Assess. 28, 1354–1367 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen, H. T., Kitner-Triolo, M., Evans, M. K. & Zonderman, A. B. Factorial invariance of the CES-D in low socioeconomic status African Americans compared with a nationally representative sample. Psychiatry Res. 126, 177–187 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crockett, L. J., Randall, B. A., Shen, Y.-L., Russell, S. T. & Driscoll, A. K. Measurement equivalence of the center for epidemiological studies depression scale for Latino and Anglo adolescents: a national study. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 73, 47–58 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van Loo, H. M., de Jonge, P., Romeijn, J.-W., Kessler, R. C. & Schoevers, R. A. Data-driven subtypes of major depressive disorder: a systematic review. BMC Med. 10, 156 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kotov, R. et al. The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP): a dimensional alternative to traditional nosologies. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 126, 454–477 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forbes, M. K. et al. Reconstructing psychopathology: a data-driven reorganization of the symptoms in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Clin. Psychol. Sci. 13, 462–488 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schramm, E., Klein, D. N., Elsaesser, M., Furukawa, T. A. & Domschke, K. Review of dysthymia and persistent depressive disorder: history, correlates, and clinical implications. Lancet Psychiatry 7, 801–812 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton, W. W. et al. Population-based study of first onset and chronicity in major depressive disorder. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 65, 513–520 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Semkovska, M. et al. Cognitive function following a major depressive episode: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Psychiatry 6, 851–861 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cosci, F. & Fava, G. A. Staging of unipolar depression: systematic review and discussion of clinical implications. Psychol. Med. 52, 1621–1628 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McIntyre, R. S. et al. Treatment-resistant depression: definition, prevalence, detection, management, and investigational interventions. World Psychiatry 22, 394–412 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ruhé, H. G., van Rooijen, G., Spijker, J., Peeters, F. P. M. L. & Schene, A. H. Staging methods for treatment resistant depression. A systematic review. J. Affect. Disord. 137, 35–45 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAllister-Williams, R. H. et al. The identification, assessment and management of difficult-to-treat depression: An international consensus statement. J. Affect. Disord. 267, 264–282 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ebrahimi, O. V. et al. Towards precision in the diagnostic profiling of patients: leveraging symptom dynamics as a clinical characterisation dimension in the assessment of major depressive disorder. Br. J. Psychiatry 224, 157–163 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nemesure, M. D. et al. Depressive symptoms as a heterogeneous and constantly evolving dynamical system: idiographic depressive symptom networks of rapid symptom changes among persons with major depressive disorder. J. Psychopathol. Clin. Sci. 133, 155–166 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, S. et al. Reporting lived experience work. Lancet Psychiatry 11, 8–9 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fusar-Poli, P. et al. The lived experience of depression: a bottom-up review co-written by experts by experience and academics. World Psychiatry 22, 352–365 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S. The dappled nature of causes of psychiatric illness: replacing the organic-functional/hardware–software dichotomy with empirically based pluralism. Mol. Psychiatry 17, 377–388 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wittenborn, A. K., Rahmandad, H., Rick, J. & Hosseinichimeh, N. Depression as a systemic syndrome: mapping the feedback loops of major depressive disorder. Psychol. Med. 46, 551–562 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I. Studying mental health problems as systems, not syndromes. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 31, 500–508 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I. & Nesse, R. M. Depression sum-scores don’t add up: why analyzing specific depression symptoms is essential. BMC Med. 13, 72 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gururajan, A., Reif, A., Cryan, J. F. & Slattery, D. A. The future of rodent models in depression research. Nat Rev Neurosci 20, 686–701 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasler, G., Drevets, W. C., Manji, H. K. & Charney, D. S. Discovering endophenotypes for major depression. Neuropsychopharmacology 29, 1765–1781 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Insel, T. et al. Research domain criteria (RDoC): toward a new classification framework for research on mental disorders. Am. J. Psychiatry 167, 748–751 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dell’Acqua, C., Palomba, D., Patron, E. & Messerotti Benvenuti, S. Rethinking the risk for depression using the RDoC: a psychophysiological perspective. Front. Psychol. 14, 1108275 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmed, A. T. et al. Mapping depression rating scale phenotypes onto research domain criteria (RDoC) to inform biological research in mood disorders. J. Affect. Disord. 238, 1–7 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tao, Y. et al. Comparing the centrality symptoms of major depressive disorder samples across junior high school students, senior high school students, college students and elderly adults during city lockdown of COVID-19 pandemic—a network analysis. J. Affect. Disord. 324, 190–198 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moradi, S. et al. Network modeling of major depressive disorder symptoms in adult women. Psychol. Med. 53, 5449–5458 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malgaroli, M., Calderon, A. & Bonanno, G. A. Networks of major depressive disorder: a systematic review. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 85, 102000 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fried, E. I. & Nesse, R. M. The impact of individual depressive symptoms on impairment of psychosocial functioning. PLoS ONE 9, e90311 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McGlinchey, J. B., Zimmerman, M., Young, D. & Chelminski, I. Diagnosing major depressive disorder VIII: are some symptoms better than others? J. Nerv. Ment. Dis. 194, 785 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mitchell, A. J., McGlinchey, J. B., Young, D., Chelminski, I. & Zimmerman, M. Accuracy of specific symptoms in the diagnosis of major depressive disorder in psychiatric out-patients: data from the MIDAS project. Psychol. Med. 39, 1107–1116 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leverich, G. S. & Post, R. M. Life charting of affective disorders. CNS Spectr. 3, 21–37 (1998).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keller, M. B. et al. The Longitudinal Interval Follow-up Evaluation. A comprehensive method for assessing outcome in prospective longitudinal studies. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 44, 540–548 (1987).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schramm, E. et al. Two-year follow-up after treatment with the cognitive behavioral analysis system of psychotherapy versus supportive psychotherapy for early-onset chronic depression. Psychother. Psychosom. 88, 154–164 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elsaesser, M. et al. Longitudinal clusters of long-term trajectories in patients with early-onset chronic depression: 2 years of naturalistic follow-up after extensive psychological treatment. Psychother. Psychosom. 93, 65–74 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M. & Gardner, C. O. Stressful life events and previous episodes in the etiology of major depression in women: an evaluation of the ‘kindling’ hypothesis. Am. J. Psychiatry 157, 1243–1251 (2000).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Piccinelli, M. & Wilkinson, G. Gender differences in depression: critical review. Br. J. Psychiatry 177, 486–492 (2000).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trull, T. J. & Ebner-Priemer, U. W. Ambulatory assessment in psychopathology research: a review of recommended reporting guidelines and current practices. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 129, 56–63 (2020).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Insel, T. R. Digital phenotyping: technology for a new science of behavior. JAMA 318, 1215–1216 (2017).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Winter, N. R. et al. From multivariate methods to an AI ecosystem. Mol. Psychiatry 26, 6116–6120 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wichers, M., Riese, H., Hodges, T. M., Snippe, E. & Bos, F. M. A narrative review of network studies in depression: what different methodological approaches tell us about depression. Front. Psychiatry 12, 719490 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, D., Susser, E., Rudolph, K. E. & Keyes, K. M. Depression networks: a systematic review of the network paradigm causal assumptions. Psychol. Med. 53, 1665–1680 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheffer, M. et al. A dynamical systems view of psychiatric disorders—practical implications: a review. JAMA Psychiatry 81, 624–630 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hofmann, S. G. A network control theory of dynamic systems approach to personalize therapy. Behav. Ther. 56, 199–212 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stocker, J. E. et al. Formalizing psychological interventions through network control theory. Sci. Rep. 13, 13830 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • van der Wal, J. M. et al. Advancing urban mental health research: from complexity science to actionable targets for intervention. Lancet Psychiatry 8, 991–1000 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schumacher, L. et al. Predicting the outcome of psychotherapy for chronic depression by person-specific symptom networks. World Psychiatry 23, 411–420 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Robberegt, S. J. et al. Personalised app-based relapse prevention of depressive and anxiety disorders in remitted adolescents and young adults: a protocol of the StayFine RCT. BMJ Open 12, e058560 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kooiman, B. E. A. M. et al. Congruency of multimodal data-driven personalization with shared decision-making for StayFine: individualized app-based relapse prevention for anxiety and depression in young people. Front. Psychiatry 14, 1229713 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Leaning, I. E. et al. From smartphone data to clinically relevant predictions: a systematic review of digital phenotyping methods in depression. Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev. 158, 105541 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jim, J. R. et al. Recent advancements and challenges of NLP-based sentiment analysis: a state-of-the-art review. Nat. Lang. Process J. 6, 100059 (2024).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hossain, M. M., Hossain, M. S., Mridha, M. F., Safran, M. & Alfarhood, S. Multi task opinion enhanced hybrid BERT model for mental health analysis. Sci. Rep. 15, 3332 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Acheampong, F. A., Nunoo-Mensah, H. & Chen, W. Transformer models for text-based emotion detection: a review of BERT-based approaches. Artif. Intell. Rev. 54, 5789–5829 (2021).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chalmers, I. et al. How to increase value and reduce waste when research priorities are set. Lancet Lond. Engl. 383, 156–165 (2014).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crowe, S., Fenton, M., Hall, M., Cowan, K. & Chalmers, I. Patients’, clinicians’ and the research communities’ priorities for treatment research: there is an important mismatch. Res. Involv. Engagem. 1, 2 (2015).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mokkink, L. B., Herbelet, S., Tuinman, P. R. & Terwee, C. B. Content validity: judging the relevance, comprehensiveness, and comprehensibility of an outcome measurement instrument—a COSMIN perspective. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 185, 111879 (2025).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexandrova, A. & Haybron, D. M. Is construct validation valid? Philos. Sci. 83, 1098–1109 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Charvet, C. et al. How to measure mental pain: a systematic review assessing measures of mental pain. Evid. Based Ment. Health 25, e4–e4 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, P., Altman, D., Blazeby, J., Clarke, M. & Gargon, E. Driving up the quality and relevance of research through the use of agreed core outcomes. J. Health Serv. Res. Policy 17, 1–2 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Veal, C. et al. A protocol for the development of a core outcome set for adults with depression. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 191, 112119 (2026).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tunis, S. R. et al. Improving the relevance and consistency of outcomes in comparative effectiveness research. J. Comp. Eff. Res. 5, 193–205 (2016).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kirkham, J. J., Boers, M., Tugwell, P., Clarke, M. & Williamson, P. R. Outcome measures in rheumatoid arthritis randomised trials over the last 50 years. Trials 14, 324 (2013).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Spitzer, R. L. Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD. The PHQ Primary Care Study. JAMA 282, 1737 (1999).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kroenke, K., Spitzer, R. L. & Williams, J. B. W. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J. Gen. Intern. Med. 16, 606–613 (2001).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, M., Morgan, T. A. & Stanton, K. The severity of psychiatric disorders. World Psychiatry 17, 258–275 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Farber, G. K., Gage, S., Kemmer, D. & White, R. Common measures in mental health: a joint initiative by funders and journals. Lancet Psychiatry 10, 465–470 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hamilton, M. A rating scale for depression. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 23, 56–62 (1960).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. B. W. Standardizing the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale: past, present, and future. Eur. Arch. Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 251, 6–12 (2001).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery, S. A. & Åsberg, M. A new depression scale designed to be sensitive to change. Br. J. Psychiatry 134, 382–389 (1979).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Ball, R. & Ranieri, W. F. Comparison of Beck Depression Inventories-IA and -II in psychiatric outpatients. J. Pers. Assess. 67, 588–597 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Storch, E. A., Roberti, J. W. & Roth, D. A. Factor structure, concurrent validity, and internal consistency of the Beck Depression Inventory? Second edition in a sample of college students. Depress. Anxiety 19, 187–189 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Busner, J. & Targum, S. D. The clinical global impressions scale: applying a research tool in clinical practice. Psychiatry 4, 28–37 (2007).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rush, A. J., Gullion, C. M., Basco, M. R., Jarrett, R. B. & Trivedi, M. H. The Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (IDS): psychometric properties. Psychol. Med. 26, 477–486 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rush, A. J. et al. The 16-item Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS), Clinician Rating (QIDS-C), and Self-Report (QIDS-SR): a psychometric evaluation in patients with chronic major depression. Biol. Psychiatry 54, 573–583 (2003).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trivedi, M. H. et al. The Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, Clinician Rating (IDS-C) and Self-Report (IDS-SR), and the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology, Clinician Rating (QIDS-C) and Self-Report (QIDS-SR) in public sector patients with mood disorders: a psychometric evaluation. Psychol. Med. 34, 73–82 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. E. & Vernon, S. W. The Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: its use in a community sample. Am. J. Psychiatry 140, 41–46 (1983).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Osório, F. L. et al. Clinical validity and intrarater and test–retest reliability of the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 – Clinician Version (SCID-5-CV). Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 73, 754–760 (2019).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehan, D. V. et al. The Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview (M.I.N.I.): the development and validation of a structured diagnostic psychiatric interview for DSM-IV and ICD-10. J Clin Psychiatry 59, 22–33 (1998).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, C.-H., Lu, M.-J., Wong, J. & Chen, C.-C. Comparison of physician-rating and self-rating scales for patients with major depressive disorder. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol 34, 716–721 (2014).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ma, S. et al. Discrepancies between self-rated depression and observed depression severity: The effects of personality and dysfunctional attitudes. Gen. Hosp. Psychiatry 70, 25–30 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cuijpers, P., Li, J., Hofmann, S. G. & Andersson, G. Self-reported versus clinician-rated symptoms of depression as outcome measures in psychotherapy research on depression: a meta-analysis. Clin. Psychol. Rev. 30, 768–778 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodmann, D. R. et al. Factor analysis of depression symptoms across five broad cultural groups. J. Affect. Disord. 282, 227–235 (2021).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maj, M. Understanding depression beyond the ‘mind–body’ dichotomy. World Psychiatry 22, 349–350 (2023).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Morriss, R., Leese, M., Chatwin, J. & Baldwin, D. Inter-rater reliability of the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale as a diagnostic and outcome measure of depression in primary care. J. Affect. Disord. 111, 204–213 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corruble, E., Purper, D., Payan, C. & Guelfi, J. Inter-rater reliability of two depression rating scales, MADRS and DRRS, based on videotape records of structured interviews. Eur. Psychiatry 13, 264–266 (1998).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schramm, E., Elsaesser, M., Jenkner, C., Hautzinger, M. & Herpertz, S. C. Algorithm-based modular psychotherapy vs. cognitive-behavioral therapy for patients with depression, psychiatric comorbidities and early trauma: a proof-of-concept randomized controlled trial. World Psychiatry 23, 257–266 (2024).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Elsaesser, M. et al. Modular-based psychotherapy (MoBa) versus cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) for patients with depression, comorbidities and a history of childhood maltreatment: study protocol for a randomised controlled feasibility trial. BMJ Open 12, e057672 (2022).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, D. & Clark, L. A. Mood and Anxiety Symptom Questionnaire (APA PsycNet, 1991); https://doi.org/10.1037/t13679-000.

  • Steitz, T. & Weeß, H.-G. in Enzyklopädie der Schlafmedizin (eds Peter, H. et al.) 1–2 (Springer, 2020).

  • Watson, D., Clark, L. A. & Tellegen, A. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 54, 1063–1070 (1988).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huang, Z., Kohler, I. V. & Kämpfen, F. A single-item Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) measure for assessing depression among college students. Commun. Ment. Health J 56, 355–367 (2020).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Snaith, R. P. et al. A scale for the assessment of hedonic tone – the Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure Scale. Br. J. Psychiatry 167, 99–103 (1995).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fawcett, J., Clark, D. C., Scheftner, W. A. & Gibbons, R. A. Assessing anhedonia in psychiatric patients: the pleasure scale. Arch. Gen. Psychiatry 40, 79 (1983).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chapman, L. J., Chapman, J. P. & Raulin, M. L. Scales for physical and social anhedonia. J. Abnorm. Psychol. 85, 374–382 (1976).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gard, D. E., Gard, M. G., Kring, A. M. & John, O. P. Anticipatory and consummatory components of the experience of pleasure: a scale development study. J. Res. Personal. 40, 1086–1102 (2006).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rizvi, S. J. et al. Dimensional Anhedonia Rating Scale (APA PsycNet, 2015); https://doi.org/10.1037/t46939-000

  • Mathey, M. F. Assessing appetite in Dutch elderly with the Appetite, Hunger and Sensory Perception (AHSP) questionnaire. J. Nutr. Health Aging 5, 22–28 (2001).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, M.-M. G. et al. Appetite assessment: simple appetite questionnaire predicts weight loss in community-dwelling adults and nursing home residents. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 82, 1074–1081 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stunkard, A. J. & Messick, S. The three-factor eating questionnaire to measure dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger. J. Psychosom. Res. 29, 71–83 (1985).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • EDI-2 – Eating Disorder Inventory-2 (Testzentrale); https://www.testzentrale.de/shop/eating-disorder-inventory-2.html

  • Thiel, A. & Paul, T. Test–retest reliability of the Eating Disorder Inventory 2. J. Psychosom. Res. 61, 567–569 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shahid, A., Wilkinson, K., Marcu, S. & Shapiro, C. M. in STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales (eds Shahid, A. et al.) 181–183 (Springer, 2011).

  • Morin C. M. Insomnia: Psychological Assessment and Management (Guilford Press, 1993).

  • Soldatos, C. R., Dikeos, D. G. & Paparrigopoulos, T. J. Athens Insomnia Scale: validation of an instrument based on ICD-10 criteria. J. Psychosom. Res. 48, 555–560 (2000).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Urponen, H., Partinen, M., Vuori, I. & Hasan, J. in Sleep and Health Risk (eds Peter, J. H. et al.) 555–558 (Springer, 1991).

  • Violani, C., Devoto, A., Lucidi, F., Lombardo, C. & Russo, P. M. Validity of a short insomnia questionnaire: the SDQ. Brain Res. Bull. 63, 415–421 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buysse, D. J., Reynolds, C. F., Monk, T. H., Berman, S. R. & Kupfer, D. J. The Pittsburgh sleep quality index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 28, 193–213 (1989).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hadzi-Pavlovic, D. et al. Inter-rater reliability of a refined index of melancholia: the CORE system. J. Affect. Disord. 27, 155–162 (1993).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corrigan, J. D. & Bogner, J. A. Factor structure of the agitated behavior scale. J. Clin. Exp. Neuropsychol. 16, 386–392 (1994).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Penner, I. et al. The Fatigue Scale for Motor and Cognitive Functions (FSMC): validation of a new instrument to assess multiple sclerosis-related fatigue. Mult. Scler. J. 15, 1509–1517 (2009).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shahid, A., Wilkinson, K., Marcu, S. & Shapiro, C. M. in STOP, THAT and One Hundred Other Sleep Scales (eds Shahid, A. et al.) 161–162 (Springer, 2011).

  • McGahuey, A. et al. The Arizona Sexual Experience Scale (ASEX): reliability and validity. J. Sex Marital Ther. 26, 25–40 (2000).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roelofs, J., Muris, P., Huibers, M., Peeters, F. & Arntz, A. On the measurement of rumination: a psychometric evaluation of the ruminative response scale and the rumination on sadness scale in undergraduates. J. Behav. Ther. Exp. Psychiatry 37, 299–313 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hoppen, T. H. et al. A brief measure of guilt and shame: validation of the Guilt and Shame Questionnaire (GSQ-8). Eur. J. Psychotraumatology 13, 2146720 (2022).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. Self-Esteem Scale (Zusammenstellung Sozialwissenschaftlicher Items Skalen ZIS, 2002); https://doi.org/10.6102/ZIS46.

  • Crocker, J., Luhtanen, R. K., Cooper, M. L. & Bouvrette, A. Contingencies of Self-Worth Scale (APA PsycNet, 2003); https://doi.org/10.1037/t00082-000

  • Frost, R. O. & Shows, D. L. The nature and measurement of compulsive indecisiveness. Behav. Res. Ther. 31, 683–IN2 (1993).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rassin, E., Muris, P., Franken, I., Smit, M. & Wong, M. Measuring general indecisiveness. J. Psychopathol. Behav. Assess. 29, 60–67 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Germeijs, V. & De Boeck, P. A measurement scale for indecisiveness and its relationship to career indecision and other types of indecision. Eur. J. Psychol. Assess. 18, 113–122 (2002).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, M. J., Edgley, K. & Dehoux, E. A survey of multiple sclerosis: I. Perceived cognitive problems and compensatory strategy use. Can. J. Rehabil. 4, 99–105 (1990).

    Google Scholar 

  • Broadbent, D. E., Cooper, P. F., FitzGerald, P. & Parkes, K. R. The Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) and its correlates. Br. J. Clin. Psychol. 21, 1–16 (1982).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wechsler, D. Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 4th edn (APA PsycNet, 2012); https://doi.org/10.1037/t15169-000

  • Harrison, J. E. et al. Stability, reliability, and validity of the THINC-it screening tool for cognitive impairment in depression: a psychometric exploration in healthy volunteers. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 27, e1736 (2018).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sahakian, B. J. & Owen, A. M. Computerized assessment in neuropsychiatry using CANTAB: discussion paper. J. R. Soc. Med. 85, 399–402 (1992).

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, W. M. Psychometric characteristics of the adult suicidal ideation questionnaire in college students. J. Pers. Assess. 56, 289–307 (1991).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Kovacs, M. & Weissman, A. Assessment of suicidal intention: the Scale for Suicide Ideation. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 47, 343–352 (1979).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Posner, K. et al. The Columbia–Suicide Severity Rating Scale: initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. Am. J. Psychiatry 168, 1266–1277 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Osman, A. et al. The Suicidal Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R): validation with clinical and nonclinical samples. Assessment 8, 443–454 (2001).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Von Glischinski, M., Teismann, T., Prinz, S., Gebauer, J. E. & Hirschfeld, G. Depressive Symptom Inventory Suicidality Subscale: optimal cut points for clinical and non-clinical samples. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 23, 543–549 (2016).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS 2.0) (WHO, 2012); https://www.who.int/standards/classifications/international-classification-of-functioning-disability-and-health/who-disability-assessment-schedule

  • Reisberg, B. Functional assessment staging (FAST). Psychopharmacol. Bull. 24, 653–659 (1988).

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rybarczyk, B. in Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology (eds Kreutzer, J. S. et al.) 2313 (Springer, 2011).

  • Sheehan, D. V., Harnett-Sheehan, K. & Raj, B. A. The measurement of disability. Int. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 11, 89 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gameroff, M. J., Wickramaratne, P. & Weissman, M. M. Testing the short and screener versions of the Social Adjustment Scale – Self-Report (SAS-SR). Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 21, 52–65 (2012).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mundt, J. C., Marks, I. M., Shear, M. K. & Greist, J. M. The Work and Social Adjustment Scale: a simple measure of impairment in functioning. Br. J. Psychiatry 180, 461–464 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Horowitz, L. M., Rosenberg, S. E., Baer, B. A., Ureño, G. & Villaseñor, V. S. Inventory of interpersonal problems: psychometric properties and clinical applications. J. Consult. Clin. Psychol. 56, 885–892 (1988).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kiesler, D. J., Schmidt, J. A. & Wagner, C. C. in Circumplex Models of Personality and Emotions (eds Plutchik, R. & Conte, H. R.) 221–244 (American Psychological Association, 1997).

  • Brennan, K. A., Clark, C. L. & Shaver, P. R. (eds) in Attachment Theory and Close Relationships 46–76 (Guilford Press, 1998).

  • Downey, G. & Feldman, S. I. Implications of rejection sensitivity for intimate relationships. J. Pers. Soc. Psychol. 70, 1327–1343 (1996).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin, L. S., Rothweiler, J. C. & Critchfield, K. L. The use of structural analysis of social behavior (SASB) as an assessment tool. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol. 2, 83–109 (2006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comments

    Leave a Reply

    Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *